subordinate interests

1) interest

2) мн. (потребности) interests

1 to subdue.

2 to submit, to bring up for discussion, to bring up for consideration, to hand in.

María sometió su propuesta Mary submitted her proposal.

El tirano somete al pueblo The tyrant submits the people.

* * *

► verbo transitivo

1 (rebeldes) to subdue, put down; (rebelión) to quell

2 (hacer recibir) to subject (a, to)

■ lo sometió a tortura he was subjected to torture

3 (pasiones) to subdue

4 (proponer, presentar) to submit, present

► verbo pronominal someterse

1 (rendirse) to surrender (a, to)

2 (tratamiento etc) to undergo (a, -)

\

someterse a la opinión de alguien to bow to somebody's opinion

someter a prueba to test, put to the test

someter algo a la autoridad to refer something to an authority

someter algo a votación to put something to the vote, vote on something

* * *

1) to subjugate

2) subject

•

- someterse

* * *

1. VT

1) (=dominar) [+ territorio, población] to subjugate; [+ rebeldes] to subdue, put down; [+ asaltante] to overpower, overcome

2) (=subordinar)

3)

a) (=exponer) [+ represión, tortura, interrogatorio] to subject to

b) (=entregar) to submit sth to

someterse

* * *

verbo transitivo

1)

a) ( dominar)

b) ( subordinar)

2)

a) (a torturas, presiones) to subject

b) ( a tratamiento)

c) ( a prueba) to subject

d) (a votación, aprobación)

someterse v pron

a) ( a autoridad) to submit to, yield to; ( a capricho) to give in to; ( a ley) to comply with

b) (a prueba, exámen, operación) to undergo

* * *

= subject, subdue, wage, subjugate, lord it over, conquer.

Ex. Author abstracts are the abstracts prepared by authors of the document that has been subjected to abstracting.

Ex. Anyway, experience had taught him that a subordinate who attempts to subdue a superordinate is almost always lost; the superordinate has too many advantages in such a contest.

Ex. It is as if libraries find themselves once again mired down in the bureaucratic information policy firefights waged during the Reagan and Bush administrations (1980-1992).

Ex. Only majorities have the power to terrorize and subjugate minority groups.

Ex. They believe that the main use for government is for some people to lord it over others at their expense.

Ex. The tools and technologies provided by the Internet enable scholars to communicate or disseminate information in ways which conquer the barriers of time and space.

----

* someter a = submit to, subject to.

* someter a Alguien = bring + Nombre + under + Posesivo + sway.

* someter a control = place under + control.

* someter a disciplina = subject to + discipline.

* someter a engaño = perpetrate + deception.

* someter a examen = expose to + examination.

* someter a juicio = try.

* someter a presión = place under + pressure.

* someter a prueba = place + strain on.

* someter a una evaluación por expertos doble = double referee.

* someterse a = truckle to, bow down before, bow to.

* * *

verbo transitivo

1)

a) ( dominar)

b) ( subordinar)

2)

a) (a torturas, presiones) to subject

b) ( a tratamiento)

c) ( a prueba) to subject

d) (a votación, aprobación)

someterse v pron

a) ( a autoridad) to submit to, yield to; ( a capricho) to give in to; ( a ley) to comply with

b) (a prueba, exámen, operación) to undergo

* * *

* * *

someter [E1 ]

(dominar): un puñado de hombres logró someter a todo el país a handful of men managed to subjugate o conquer the whole country

fue necesario usar la fuerza para someterlo they had to use force to subdue him

(subordinar): los sometió a su autoridad he forced them to submit to o yield to his authority, he imposed his authority on them

quieren someter nuestros intereses a los de una multinacional they are trying to subordinate our interests to those of a multinational, they are trying to put the interests of a multinational before ours

1 (a torturas, presiones) to subject

lo sometieron a un exhaustivo interrogatorio they subjected him to a thorough interrogation

(a un tratamiento): fue sometido a una intervención quirúrgica he underwent o had surgery, he underwent o had an operation, he was operated on

3 (a una prueba) to subject

someten los productos a pruebas de calidad the products are subjected to o undergo quality control tests

el avión fue sometido a una minuciosa revisión the aircraft was given a thorough overhaul

(a una votación): el acuerdo está sometido a la aprobación del Parlamento the agreement is subject to the approval of Parliament

el proyecto de ley será sometido a votación the bill will be put to the vote o will be voted on

la propuesta será sometida a la aprobación de los socios the proposal will be submitted to o presented to o put before the members for approval

(a una autoridad): no me someteré a la autoridad de este comité I shall not submit to o yield to the authority of this committee

no te sometas a sus caprichos don't bow to o give in to his whims

los extranjeros deben someterse a las leyes del país foreigners must comply with the laws of the country

(a una prueba): tendrá que someterse a un examen médico you will have to undergo o have a medical examination

* * *

◊ fue necesario usar la fuerza para someterlo they had to use force to subdue him

◊ lo sometieron a un interrogatorio they subjected him to an interrogation;

a) ( a autoridad) to submit to, yield to;

b) (a prueba, examen, operación) to undergo

* * *

♦ vt

1. [dominar, subyugar] to subdue;

los sometieron a su autoridad they forced them to accept their authority;

no consiguieron someter a la guerilla they were unable to subdue o put down the guerrillas

2. [presentar]

someter algo a votación to put sth to the vote;

sometieron sus conclusiones a la comisión they submitted o presented their conclusions to the committee

3. [subordinar]

sometió su opinión a la de la mayoría she went along with the opinion of the majority

4. [a interrogatorio, presiones]

someter a alguien a una operación to operate on sb;

sometieron la estructura a duras pruebas de resistencia the structure was subjected to stringent strength tests;

sometieron la ciudad a un fuerte bombardeo the city was subjected to heavy bombing

♦ See also the pronominal verb someterse

* * *

1 subjugate

someter a alguien a algo subject s.o. to sth

someter algo a votación put sth to the vote

* * *

someter vt

1) : to subjugate, to conquer

2) : to subordinate

3) : to subject (to treatment or testing)

4) : to submit, to present

♦ See also the reflexive verb someterse

* * *

someter vb

1. (exponer) to subject

2. (proponer) to put [pt. & pp. put]

* * *

n <Geschäft, Recht> interest (int.) ■ im Interesse einer abwesenden Person handeln < Recht> Vorträge act in the interest of an absent person, act on behalf of an absent person, act for the sake of an absent person ■ jmds. Interessen schützen < Geschäft> protect sb's interests ■ jmds. Interessen wahrnehmen < Geschäft> protect sb's interests, represent sb's interests

* * *

1 to hinder, to hamper.

2 to obstruct, to encumber, to balk, to block up.

Su tamaño obstaculiza la vista His size obstructs the view.

3 to obstruct the way to, to make it cumbersome to.

María obstaculiza hacer la pared Mary makes it cumbersome to make the wall.

4 to create an obstacle for, to obstruct.

María obstaculiza a Ricardo Mary creates an obstacle for Richard.

* * *

Conjugation model [ REALIZAR], like realizar

► verbo transitivo

1 to obstruct, hinder

* * *

VT [+ negociaciones, progreso] to hinder, hamper; [+ tráfico] to hold up

* * *

verbo transitivo <progreso/trabajo> to hinder, hamper; < tráfico> to hold up

* * *

= encumber, hamper, handicap, hinder, thwart, stand in + the way (of), obstruct, stymie, get in + the way (of), hem + Nombre + in, cramp.

Ex. It is extremely difficult for SLIS to compete with other interests which are less encumbered on equal terms.

Ex. Unfortunately, the inclusion of abstracts in most services tends to hamper currency.

Ex. The database may, as a result of its parentage, be handicapped by features that are not suited to computerized retrieval.

Ex. In practice the application of recall and precision in the evaluation of indexes is hindered by the difficulty of evaluating some of the components in the definition.

Ex. A public library's design can go far in either reinforcing or thwarting the intimacy of reading and in determining its success -- functionally, aesthetically and financially.

Ex. It may be objected that a direct experience of the country by visiting it does not ensure a true picture, in fact that it may even stand in the way.

Ex. But the present revision, incorporating ISBD, will literally clutter the entries with obtrusive redundancies and esoterics that will only obscure the content of the entries and obstruct the use of the catalog.

Ex. So, in a lot of cases the ability to take advantage of technologically sophisticated younger faculty is stymied by these conflicting interests.

Ex. At the end of the day, librarians must 'produce the goods' and prove their worth -- professionalism could get in the way.

Ex. The world of work is no longer constrained by the four physical dimensions of space and time that have hemmed us in for most of recorded history.

Ex. They used schools as a buttress of a caste system designed to subordinate blacks socially, to cramp them economically under a rigid job ceiling.

----

* no obstaculizar = be out of the way of.

* obstaculizar el paso = block in.

* obstaculizar la labor judicial = pervert + the course of justice.

* sin estar obstaculizado por = untrammelled by.

* * *

verbo transitivo <progreso/trabajo> to hinder, hamper; < tráfico> to hold up

* * *

* * *

obstaculizar [A4 ]

‹progreso/trabajo› to hinder, hamper, impede; ‹tráfico› to hold up, obstruct

no obstaculice el paso don't stand in the way

* * *

◊ no obstaculice el paso don't stand in the way

* * *

obstaculizar vt

obstaculizar el paso to block the way

* * *

v/t hinder, hamper

* * *

obstaculizar {21} vt

impedir: to obstruct, to hinder

* * *

obstaculizar vb to block

1 to subordinate.

estar supeditado a to be dependent on

2 to subdue, to overpower, to subject.

* * *

► verbo transitivo

1 (subordinar) to subordinate (a, to)

2 (condicionar) to subject (a, to)

► verbo pronominal supeditarse

1 (someterse) to subject oneself (a, to), bow (a, to)

\

estar supeditado,-a a to be subject to, be dependent on

* * *

1. VT

1) (=subordinar) to subordinate (a to)

2) (=sojuzgar) to subdue

3) (=oprimir) to oppress, crush

supeditarse

* * *

verbo transitivo

supeditarse v pron (a reglas, decisión) to abide by

* * *

verbo transitivo

supeditarse v pron (a reglas, decisión) to abide by

* * *

supeditar [A1 ]

no puede seguir supeditando todo a su trabajo you cannot carry on putting your work before everything else o ( frml) subordinating everything else to your work

supeditaron su decisión al resultado del referéndum they made their decision conditional upon the result of the referendum, they said that their decision depended on the result of the referendum

está supeditado al cumplimiento de ciertos requisitos it depends on certain requirements being met, it is subject to certain requirements being met

se deberán supeditar a las decisiones del comité they will have to abide by o accept the committee's decisions, they will have to be bound by the committee's decisions

se ha supeditado a la voluntad de los padres she has given in to her parents' wishes

* * *

* * *

♦ vt

1. [subordinar] to subordinate (a to);

2. [someter]

el proyecto está supeditado al presupuesto disponible the project depends on the available budget

♦ See also the pronominal verb supeditarse

* * *

v/t make conditional (a upon)

* * *

supeditar vt

subordinar: to subordinate

♦ supeditación nf

secondary, of secondary importance, minor

второстепенен въпрос a subsidiary question, a minor issue

второстепенна роля a minor/supporting part. a subordinate role

второстепенна личност (в някоя област) a subsidiary figure

второстепенно значение secondary/minor/marginal importance

от второстепенно значение of secondary importance

заемам второстепенно място occupy a subordinate place

второстепенни области на познанието byways of learning

* * *

второстѐпенен,

прил., -на, -но, -ни secon-dary, of secondary importance, minor; \второстепененен въпрос subsidiary question, minor issue; \второстепененен кредитор secondary creditor; \второстепененна компания fringe company; \второстепененна роля minor/supporting part, subordinate role; \второстепененна личност (в някоя област) subsidiary figure; \второстепененни области на познанието byways of learning; \второстепененни права minor interests; заемам \второстепененно място occupy a subordinate place; от \второстепененно значение of secondary importance.

* * *

middling; accidental; collateral; inessential; off{Of}; second; secondary: of второстепенен importance - от второстепенно значение; two-bit

* * *

1) General subject: subordinate own interests to the public good

2) Makarov: subordinate( one's) own interests to the public good

1 exposition, show, display, exhibit.

2 exposure, exposed position, exposition.

Exposición al sol Exposure to the sun.

3 exposé.

4 exposition, dissertation.

5 exposure.

6 time exposure.

7 libel, exposé.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 (de arte) exhibition, show; (de mercancías) display

2 (explicación) account, explanation; (hechos, ideas) exposé

3 (al sol etc) exposure

4 (fotografía) exposure

5 (riesgo) risk

\

exposición universal world fair

* * *

1) exhibition, show

2) display

3) exposure

* * *

1) (=muestra) (Arte) exhibition; (Com) show, fair

2) (=acto) [gen] exposing, exposure; (Fot) exposure; (Com) display

3) (=enunciado) [de hechos] statement; [de teoría] exposition

* * *

1)

a) ( acción) exhibition, showing

b) (muestra - de cuadros, esculturas) exhibition; (- de productos, maquinaria) show

- exposición canina

- exposición comercial or industrial

2) (de hechos, razones) statement, exposition (frml); (de tema, teoría) exposition (frml), presentation

3) (al aire, sol) exposure; (Fot) exposure

* * *

= account, display, exhibition, exposition, exposure, show, exhibit, art show, viewing.

Ex. In the interests of clarity an integrated account of the appropriate added entry headings is to be found in 21.29 and 21.30.

Ex. Displays which take a theme approach, for example wild flowers, vintage cars, railways, and gather together material from different places in the library, can be useful in drawing attention to specific aspects of a library's resources.

Ex. Special rules are includes for specific types of corporate bodies, such as exhibitions, conferences, subordinate and related bodies, governments bodies and officials, and radio and television stations.

Ex. Ninety-nine years ago Charles Cutter began his exposition of a set of cataloging rules with the following objectives.

Ex. The 1850s also saw the appearance of photolithography, whereby a chemical film spread on the surface of a litho stone or plate was rendered insoluble and water-repellent by exposure to light.

Ex. Locate the exhibit catalog for a show of American impressionists held at the Corcoran Gallery in 1985.

Ex. Models and displays set up in the salesrooms or as special exhibits are both decorative and interesting.

Ex. The library provides a range of services to its community, including homebound service, story hours, film series, literacy tutoring, income tax assistance, art shows, to name a few.

Ex. There will be a private viewing for conference-goers of Chicago's Art Institute and a reception at the Newberry Library with culinary delights created by Chef Louis Szathmary.

----

* ajustar la exposición = adjust + exposure.

* catálogo de exposición = exhibit catalogue, exhibition catalogue.

* celebrar una exposición = hold + exhibition.

* claridad de exposición = clarity of exposition.

* en exposición = on exhibit, on show, on display.

* exposición al sol = sun exposure.

* exposición comercial = trade show, trade exhibition.

* exposición de arte = art exhibit, art exhibition.

* exposición de fotografías = photographic exhibition.

* exposición de inauguración = opening exhibition.

* exposición de libros = book display.

* exposición de los hechos = statement of fact.

* exposición de museo = museum exhibit.

* exposición de productos artesanales = craft show.

* exposiciones de fotografía = salon photography.

* exposición fotográfica = photographic exhibition, photo gallery.

* exposición indecente = indecent exposure.

* exposición itinerante = travelling exhibition.

* inauguración de la exposición = exhibition opening.

* industria de las exposiciones comerciales = trade show industry.

* montar una exposición = mount + display, mount + exhibition, put on + display, put on + exhibition.

* participante en la exposición comercial = exhibitor.

* sala de exposiciones = exhibition room, exhibit hall.

* sala de exposición y venta = show room [showroom].

* salón de exposición y ventas = salesroom [saleroom].

* * *

1)

a) ( acción) exhibition, showing

b) (muestra - de cuadros, esculturas) exhibition; (- de productos, maquinaria) show

- exposición canina

- exposición comercial or industrial

2) (de hechos, razones) statement, exposition (frml); (de tema, teoría) exposition (frml), presentation

3) (al aire, sol) exposure; (Fot) exposure

* * *

* * *

1 (acción) exhibition, showing

2 (muestra — de cuadros, esculturas) exhibition; (— de productos, maquinaria) show

una exposición de flores a flower show

una exposición itinerante a traveling exhibition

dog show

trade fair

trade fair

world fair

B (de hechos, razones) statement, setting out, exposition ( frml); (de un tema, una teoría) exposition ( frml), presentation

hizo una exposición detallada de lo ocurrido she gave a detailed account of what had happened

1 (al aire, sol) exposure

2 ( Fot) exposure

* * *

a) ( acción) exhibition, showing

b) ( muestra — de cuadros, esculturas) exhibition;

* * *

exposición nf

1. [de arte] exhibition;

una exposición de flores a flower show;

una exposición canina a dog show

2. [de teoría] exposition;

ofreció una detallada exposición de los hechos she gave a detailed account of the events

3. [al sol, calor, radiaciones] exposure

4. Fot exposure

5. Mús exposition

* * *

f exhibition

* * *

exposición nf, pl - ciones

1) exhibición: exposition, exhibition

2) : exposure

3) : presentation, statement

* * *

exposición n

1. (de arte) exhibition

2. (de productos) show

v/t (trennb., hat -ge-)

1. an seinen Platz: put back

2. (Heizung etc.) turn down; (Uhr) put back

3. (Ware) put aside; zurückstellen für auch keep for

4. fig. (Projekt etc.) put on the back burner; (Zweifel etc.) put aside; (Privatleben etc.) put last; MIL., zeitweilig: defer; als unentbehrlich: exempt from service; PÄD., von Einschulung: defer the entry of; die eigenen Interessen zurückstellen put one’s own interests last

* * *

to move back; to put back; to postpone

* * *

vt sep

1) (an seinen Platz) Uhr to put back; (nach hinten) to move back

2) Waren to put aside or by

3) (Aus = zurücksenden) to send back, to return

4) (fig) Schüler to keep down

5) (fig = verschieben) to defer; Investitionen, Pläne to postpone; Bedenken, Forderungen etc to put aside; Sport, Privatleben, Hobbys etc to spend less time on

* * *

* * *

1. (wieder hinstellen)

▪ etw [wieder] \zurückstellen to put back sth sep

2. (nach hinten stellen)

▪ etw \zurückstellen to move back sth sep

3. (kleiner stellen)

▪ etw \zurückstellen Heizung, Ofen to turn sth lower, to turn down sth sep

4. (aufschieben)

▪ etw \zurückstellen to put back sth sep; (hintanstellen) to shelve [or defer] sth; (verschieben) to postpone sth

man stellte die Arbeiten um einige Wochen zurück work was put back [by] a few weeks

eine Rechtssache zu späterer Entscheidung \zurückstellen to defer a case to be dealt with at a later date

die Uhr \zurückstellen to turn [or set] back sep the clock

5. (vorläufig befreien)

▪ jdn \zurückstellen to keep sb back

wird er eingeschult oder noch ein Jahr zurückgestellt? is he going to start school or he is being kept down a year?

6. (vorerst nicht geltend machen)

seine Bedenken/Wünsche \zurückstellen to put aside one's doubts/wishes

7. ÖSTERR (zurückgeben)

▪ etw \zurückstellen to return [or sep give/send back] sth

* * *

1) put back

2) (nach hinten stellen) move back

3) (niedriger einstellen) turn down < heating>; put back < clock>

4) (reservieren) put aside, keep ( Dat

5)

6) (aufschieben) postpone; defer

7) (hintanstellen) put aside <reservations, doubts, etc.>

* * *

zurückstellen v/t (trennb, hat -ge-)

1. an seinen Platz: put back

2. (Heizung etc) turn down; (Uhr) put back

3. (Ware) put aside;

zurückstellen für auch keep for

4. fig (Projekt etc) put on the back burner; (Zweifel etc) put aside; (Privatleben etc) put last; MIL, zeitweilig: defer; als unentbehrlich: exempt from service; SCHULE, von Einschulung: defer the entry of;

die eigenen Interessen zurückstellen put one’s own interests last

* * *

1) put back

2) (nach hinten stellen) move back

3) (niedriger einstellen) turn down < heating>; put back < clock>

4) (reservieren) put aside, keep ( Dat

5)

6) (aufschieben) postpone; defer

7) (hintanstellen) put aside <reservations, doubts, etc.>

* * *

to set back v. (alt.Rechtschreibung) v.

to place back v.

"to subject;

Unterziehen, Unterwerfen;

submeter"

* * *

submit

popolo subdue

* * *

sottomettere v.tr.

1 to subject; to subdue (anche fig.): sottomettere una nazione, to subject a nation // non lasciarti sottomettere, ribellati!, don't let them walk on you, stand up for yourself! // sottomettere a una dura prova, to really put to the test

2 ( subordinare) to subordinate: sottomette i suoi interessi a quelli della famiglia, he subordinates his own interests to those of his family

3 ( presentare) to submit: sottomettere un caso al giudizio di qlcu., to submit a case to s.o.'s judgement.

◘ sottomettersi v.rifl. to submit: sottomettere all'autorità di qlcu., to submit to s.o.'s authority.

* * *

1. [sotto'mettere]

(gen) to subject, (popolo, nemico) to subjugate, subdue

2. vr (sottomettersi)

* * *

verbo transitivo

1) (assoggettare) to subdue, to subject lett. [ popolo]; (piegare) to tame, to render [sb.] submissive [ persona]

2) (sottoporre) to submit, to present [progetto, caso] (a to)

verbo pronominale sottomettersi

1) (arrendersi) to submit

2) (accettare)

* * *

sottomettere

/sotto'mettere/ [60]

I verbo transitivo

 1 (assoggettare) to subdue, to subject lett. [ popolo]; (piegare) to tame, to render [sb.] submissive [ persona]

 2 (sottoporre) to submit, to present [progetto, caso] (a to)

II sottomettersi verbo pronominale

 1 (arrendersi) to submit

 2 (accettare) -rsi all'autorità di qcn. to abide by sb.'s authority.

1) subordination, subjugation, submission

2) (подведомственность) jurisdiction

(and Enclave of Cabinda)

   From 1575 to 1975, Angola was a colony of Portugal. Located in west-central Africa, this colony has been one of the largest, most strategically located, and richest in mineral and agricultural resources in the continent. At first, Portugal's colonial impact was largely coastal, but after 1700 it became more active in the interior. By international treaties signed between 1885 and 1906, Angola's frontiers with what are now Zaire and Zambia were established. The colony's area was 1,246,700 square kilometers (481,000 square miles), Portugal's largest colonial territory after the independence of Brazil. In Portugal's third empire, Angola was the colony with the greatest potential.

   The Atlantic slave trade had a massive impact on the history, society, economy, and demography of Angola. For centuries, Angola's population played a subordinate role in the economy of Portugal's Brazil-centered empire. Angola's population losses to the slave trade were among the highest in Africa, and its economy became, to a large extent, hostage to the Brazilian plantation-based economic system. Even after Brazil's independence in 1822, Brazilian economic interests and capitalists were influential in Angola; it was only after Brazil banned the slave trade in 1850 that the heavy slave traffic to former Portuguese America began to wind down. Although slavery in Angola was abolished, in theory, in the 1870s, it continued in various forms, and it was not until the early 1960s that its offspring, forced labor, was finally ended.

   Portugal's economic exploitation of Angola went through different stages. During the era of the Atlantic slave trade (ca. 1575-1850), when many of Angola's slaves were shipped to Brazil, Angola's economy was subordinated to Brazil's and to Portugal's. Ambitious Lisbon-inspired projects followed when Portugal attempted to replace the illegal slave trade, long the principal income source for the government of Angola, with legitimate trade, mining, and agriculture. The main exports were dyes, copper, rubber, coffee, cotton, and sisal. In the 1940s and 1950s, petroleum emerged as an export with real potential. Due to the demand of the World War II belligerents for Angola's raw materials, the economy experienced an impetus, and soon other articles such as diamonds, iron ore, and manganese found new customers. Angola's economy, on an unprecedented scale, showed significant development, which was encouraged by Lisbon. Portugal's colonization schemes, sending white settlers to farm in Angola, began in earnest after 1945, although such plans had been nearly a century in the making. Angola's white population grew from about 40,000 in 1940 to nearly 330,000 settlers in 1974, when the military coup occurred in Portugal.

   In the early months of 1961, a war of African insurgency broke out in northern Angola. Portugal dispatched armed forces to suppress resistance, and the African insurgents were confined to areas on the borders of northern and eastern Angola at least until the 1966-67 period. The 13-year colonial war had a telling impact on both Angola and Portugal. When the Armed Forces Movement overthrew the Estado Novo on 25 April 1974, the war in Angola had reached a stalemate and the major African nationalist parties (MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA) had made only modest inroads in the northern fringes and in central and eastern Angola, while there was no armed activity in the main cities and towns.

   After a truce was called between Portugal and the three African parties, negotiations began to organize the decolonizat ion process. Despite difficult maneuvering among the parties, Portugal, the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA signed the Alvor Agreement of January 1975, whereby Portugal would oversee a transition government, create an all-Angola army, and supervise national elections to be held in November 1975. With the outbreak of a bloody civil war among the three African parties and their armies, the Alvor Agreement could not be put into effect. Fighting raged between March and November 1975. Unable to prevent the civil war or to insist that free elections be held, Portugal's officials and armed forces withdrew on 11 November 1975. Rather than handing over power to one party, they transmitted sovereignty to the people of Angola. Angola's civil war continued into the 21st century.

    See also Empire, Portuguese overseas.

   The guiding principle of Portuguese foreign policy since the founding of the monarchy in the 12th century has been the maintenance of Portugal's status first as an independent kingdom and, later, as a sovereign nation-state. For the first 800 years of its existence, Portuguese foreign policy and diplomacy sought to maintain the independence of the Portuguese monarchy, especially in relationship to the larger and more powerful Spanish monarchy. During this period, the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, which began with a treaty of commerce and friendship signed between the kings of Portugal and England in 1386 (the Treaty of Windsor) and continued with the Methuen Treaty in 1703, sought to use England ( Great Britain after 1707) as a counterweight to its landward neighbor, Spain.

   As three invasions of Portugal by Napoleon's armies during the first decade of the 19th century proved, however, Spain was not the only threat to Portugal's independence and security. Portugal's ally, Britain, provided a counterweight also to a threatening France on more than one occasion between 1790 and 1830. During the 19th century, Portugal's foreign policy became largely subordinate to that of her oldest ally, Britain, and standard Portuguese histories describe Portugal's situation as that of a "protectorate" of Britain. In two key aspects during this time of international weakness and internal turmoil, Portugal's foreign policy was under great pressure from her ally, world power Britain: responses to European conflicts and to the situation of Portugal's scattered, largely impoverished overseas empire. Portugal's efforts to retain massive, resource-rich Brazil in her empire failed by 1822, when Brazil declared its independence. Britain's policy of favoring greater trade and commerce opportunities in an autonomous Brazil was at odds with Portugal's desperate efforts to hold Brazil.

   Following the loss of Brazil and a renewed interest in empire in tropical Africa, Portugal sought to regain a more independent initiative in her foreign policy and, especially after 1875, overseas imperial questions dominated foreign policy concerns. From this juncture, through the first Republic (1910-26) and during the Estado Novo, a primary purpose of Portuguese foreign policy was to maintain Portuguese India, Macau, and its colonies in Africa: Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau. Under the direction of the dictator, Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, further efforts were made to reclaim a measure of independence of foreign policy, despite the tradition of British dominance. Salazar recognized the importance of an Atlantic orientation of the country's foreign policy. As Herbert Pell, U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1937-41), observed in a June 1939 report to the U.S. Department of State, Portugal's leaders understood that Portugal must side with "that nation which dominates the Atlantic."

   During the 1930s, greater efforts were made in Lisbon in economic, financial, and foreign policy initiatives to assert a greater measure of flexibility in her dependence on ally Britain. German economic interests made inroads in an economy whose infrastructure in transportation, communication, and commerce had long been dominated by British commerce and investors. Portugal's foreign policy during World War II was challenged as both Allied and Axis powers tested the viability of Portugal's official policy of neutrality, qualified by a customary bow to the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, who served as minister of foreign affairs, as well as prime minister, during 1936-45, sought to sell his version of neutrality to both sides in the war and to do so in a way that would benefit Portugal's still weak economy and finance. Portugal's status as a neutral was keenly tested in several cases, including Portugal's agreeing to lease military bases to Britain and the United States in the Azores Islands and in the wolfram (tungsten ore) question. Portugal's foreign policy experienced severe pressures from the Allies in both cases, and Salazar made it clear to his British and American counterparts that Portugal sought to claim the right to make independent choices in policy, despite Portugal's military and economic weakness. In tense diplomatic negotiations with the Allies over Portugal's wolfram exports to Germany as of 1944, Salazar grew disheartened and briefly considered resigning over the wolfram question. Foreign policy pressure on this question diminished quickly on 6 June 1944, as Salazar decreed that wolfram mining, sales, and exports to both sides would cease for the remainder of the war. After the United States joined the Allies in the war and pursued an Atlantic strategy, Portugal discovered that her relationship with the dominant ally in the emerging United Nations was changing and that the U.S. would replace Britain as the key Atlantic ally during succeeding decades. Beginning in 1943-44, and continuing to 1949, when Portugal became, with the United States, a founding member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Luso-American relations assumed center stage in her foreign policy.

   During the Cold War, Portuguese foreign policy was aligned with that of the United States and its allies in Western Europe. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the focus of Portuguese foreign policy shifted away from defending and maintaining the African colonies toward integration with Europe. Since Portugal became a member of the European Economic Community in 1986, and this evolved into the European Union (EU), all Portuguese governments have sought to align Portugal's foreign policy with that of the EU in general and to be more independent of the United States. Since 1986, Portugal's bilateral commercial and diplomatic relations with Britain, France, and Spain have strengthened, especially those with Spain, which are more open and mutually beneficial than at any other time in history.

   Within the EU, Portugal has sought to play a role in the promotion of democracy and human rights, while maintaining its security ties to NATO. Currently, a Portuguese politician, José Manuel Durão Barroso, is president of the Commission of the EU, and Portugal has held the six-month rotating presidency of the EU three times, in 1992, 2000, and 2007.

μιαίνω (Hom.+) fut. μιανῶ (Hs 5, 7, 2); 1 aor. ἐμίανα, ptc. μιάνας. Pass.: fut. 3 sg. μιανθήσεται LXX; 1 aor. ἐμιάνθην; pf. μεμίαμμαι, ptc. μεμιαμμένος (B-D-F §72; W-S. §13, 1; Mlt-H. 223; 249). The primary sense ‘to stain’ (as of dye [Il. 4, 141]) prepares the way for the transf. sense of causing defilement through socially or cultically unacceptable behavior. It is well to keep in mind in connection with the use of this term and cognates that in the Gr-Rom. world harmonious relations with the transcendent realm were understood to be dependent on careful observance of certain moral and ritual proprieties. Individuals were subordinate to interests of the community and violations of standard moral and ceremonial expectations could jeopardize the delicate balance between an entire populace and its deities. In our lit. only in transf. sense

① to cause someth. to be ritually impure, stain, defile (Jos., Bell. 4, 201; 215, Ant. 11, 300 al.; GJs 8:2) pass. ἵνα μὴ μιανθῶσιν J 18:28 (cp. 1 Macc 1:63 ἵνα μὴ μιανθῶσιν τοῖς βρώμασι). On this subject s. Schürer II 83f; Bousset, Rel.³ 93f.

② to cause the purity of someth. to be violated by immoral behavior, defile (Pind., Aeschyl. et al.; Kaibel 713, 9 οὐ χεῖρα φόνοισι μιάνας. Less freq. in prose, e.g. SIG 1240, 7 ὑβρίσει μιάνας; PFlor 338, 18; LXX; EpArist 166; Philo; Jos., Bell. 4, 323) τὶ someth. τὰς χεῖρας Ac 5:38 D. σάρκα Jd 8; Hm 4, 1, 9; Hs 5, 7, 2–4. τὸ πνεῦμα 5, 6, 5; 5, 7, 2. ἑαυτόν 9, 17, 5. τὴν ἐντολὴν τοῦ κυρίου defile the commandment of the Lord m 3:2; cp. Hs 9, 29, 2. Eve ὁ ὄφις … ἐμίανεν αὐτὴν GJs 13:1. Mary Ἰωσὴφ … ἐμίανεν αὐτήν 15:2 (JosAs 23:13).—Pass. (UPZ 78, 27 [159 B.C.]; En 12:4; oft. Philo; TestBenj 8:3; Ar. 12:1) ἡ πορεία τῆς σαρκὸς ταύτης … οὐκ ἐμιάνθη Hs 5, 6, 6. The Holy Spirit, dwelling in a person, is contaminated when the pers. becomes angry m 5, 1, 3; likew. patience 5, 1, 6. The mind of the faithless Tit 1:15b. Withdrawing fr. the grace of God leads to defilement by sin Hb 12:15. Subst. ὁ μεμιαμμένος he who is defiled Tit 1:15a (JPlumpe, Theol. Studies 6, ’45, 509–23).—DELG. M-M. TW.

ἄγγελος, ου, ὁ (Hom.+) ‘messenger’.

① a human messenger serving as an envoy, an envoy, one who is sent

ⓐ by humans (Hom.+; ins, pap; Gen 32:4, 7; Jdth 1:11; 3:1; 1 Macc 1:44; 7:10; Jos., Ant. 14, 451, Vi. 89): in his earthly ministry Jesus ἀπέστειλεν ἀγγέλους (Diod S 2,18,1 the king of India to Semiramis; 4, 65, 4) Lk 9:52; of John the Baptist’s disciples 7:24; of Joshua’s scouts Js 2:25 (cp. Josh 7:22).

ⓑ by God (prophets Hg 1:13; Mal subscr.; a priest Mal 2:7.—1 Esdr 1:48f. S. also Theognis 1, 769, where the poet is Μουσέων ἄγγελος; Epict. 3, 22, 23; 38; Ael. Aristid. 37 K.=1 p. 15 D.; Maximus Tyr. 11, 9c Plato, as the one who brings us information about God, is called ὁ ἐξ Ἀκαδημίας ἄγγ.; Oenomaus in Eus., PE 5, 20, 3; 5 Carnus the soothsayer is ἄγγ. of the gods) of John the Baptist as forerunner Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2; Lk 7:27 (all Mal 3:1; cp. Ex 23:20).

② a transcendent power who carries out various missions or tasks, messenger, angel (ἄ. as a spirit-being, oft. connected w. the nether world in Gr-Rom. sources [EZiebarth, Neue attische Fluchtafeln: NGG 1899, 127ff no. 24; IG XII/3, 933–74. Other material in Dibelius, Geisterwelt 209ff. S. also the oracles: Theosophien 13 p. 169, 31; Ps.-Callisth. 1, 1, 3 ἐπεκαλεῖτο τοὺς ἀγγέλους καὶ θεὸν Ἄμμωνα; 2, 25, 1; Porphyr., Ad Marcellam 21 ἄγγελοι θεῖοί τε κ. ἀγαθοὶ δαίμονες; Hierocles 3, 424; 23, 468.—ἄ. w. θεοί and δαίμονες Damascius (V/VI A.D.) 183 Ruelle; ἄ. w. δαίμονες and ἥρωες Proclus, Rep. II 243 Kroll, Tim. III 109 Diehl.—FCumont, RHR 72, 1915, 159–82; FAndres, D. Engellehre d. griech. Apologeten 1914 and in Pauly-W. Suppl. III 1918, 101ff; Rtzst., Myst. 171, 2; Bousset, ARW 18, 1915, 170ff] and as a transcendent power in Judaism [LXX; En 10:7; 20:1; 99:3 al.; Essenes in Jos., Bell. 2, 142; Philo, cp. Schürer III 881–85 (on Philo) w. lit.; Joseph.; Test12Patr; prayers for vengeance fr. Rheneia (I B.C.) 9f κύριε ὁ πάντα ἐφορῶν καὶ οἱ ἄνγελοι θεοῦ; on this Dssm. LO 353f; 357=LAE 414; 418f; SIG 1181 w. note 2; PFouad 203, 3f (I A.D.); on this PBenoit, RB 58, ’51, 549–65; PKatz, TZ 10, ’54, 228–31. Loanw. in rabb.—Bousset, Rel. 320ff; J-BFrey, L’Angélologie juive au temps de J-Chr.: RSPT 5, 1911, 75–110; HKuhn, JBL 67, ’48, 217–32 Jewish apocalypses], likewise in the magical pap, w. their mixture of gentile and Jewish infl. [PGM 1, 76 an ἄ. as a star fr. heaven; 4, 570ff; 998; 1112; 13, 329; 585; 609; 744]. Cp. the ins APF 3, 1906, 445 no. 67; 451 no. 94. The more common term in polytheistic lit. for beings intermediate between gods and humans is δαίμων [q.v.], which monotheistic writers reserved for reference to a realm hostile to God’s interests, while retaining the term ἄ. for intermediate beings, either those loyal to God or those in rebellion [s. c].)

ⓐ as messengers of God, angels (LXX; Philo, Somn. 1, 190; transcendent messengers of the gods in Hom. are not intermediate beings. Yet the description of Hermes, the κῆρυξ τῶν θεῶν, as their ἄγγελος ἄριστος [Diod S 5, 75, 2] may have made it easier for Gr-Romans in general to understand ἄ. as God’s heavenly messenger; cp. the messenger of the god Men: EA 18, ’91 p. 92f, no. 2, 5f [lit.]) mostly w. gen.: κυρίου (Gen 16:10f al.) Mt 1:20; 2:13, 19; Lk 1:11; 2:9; Ac 5:19; 12:7, 23. τοῦ θεοῦ (Gen 31:11; 32:2 al.; Philo, Deus Imm. 1; Jos., Bell. 5, 388) Lk 12:8f; 15:10; J 1:51 (HWindisch, ZNW 30, ’31, 215–33; also s. below on Lk. 2:15). ἄ. θεοῦ (Gen 21:17 A; Judg 13:6 B; Jos., Ant. 1, 73; Orig., C. Cels. 8, 31, 18) Gal 4:14; Hb 1:6 (Ps 96:7; Dt 32:43); 1 Cl 29:2 (Dt 32:8). Abs. (Num 20:16; Judg 13:11; Tob 6:4ff al.) Lk 1:13, 18, 38; 2:10, 13, 15, 21; J 20:12; Ac 7:53; 1 Ti 3:16; 1 Pt 1:12 (in wordplay on the superiority of human beings to angels s. Sextus 32; on their status and classification s. also Orig., C. Cels. 4, 29, 16) al. ἅγιοι ἄ. (PGM 4, 1934, 1938) Mk 8:38; Lk 9:26; Ac 10:22; Rv 14:10; 1 Cl 39:7 (Job 5:1); Hv 2, 2, 7; ἐκλεκτοὶ ἄ. 1 Ti 5:21 (ἄ. as witnesses so TestLevi 19:3 and SIG 1181, 10=Dssm. LO 351–62 [LAE 413–24]; cp. Jos., Bell. 2, 401); ἄ. ἰσχυρός (cp. Da 4:13; Ps 102:20) Rv 5:2; 18:21. Their abode is heaven, and so they are ἄ. τῶν οὐρανῶν Mt 24:36 (unless οὐρ.=θεοῦ); ἄ. ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς Mk 12:25; ἄ. ἐν οὐρανῷ 13:32; ἄ. ἐξ οὐρανοῦ Gal 1:8, cp. Mt 22:30; 28:2; Lk 22:43. They return to heaven when they have fulfilled their mission on earth 2:15. Hence ἄ. φωτός (cp. SJCh 78, 17) 2 Cor 11:14; ἄ. φωταγωγοί B 18:1. There the good are united w. them after death Hv 2, 2, 7; Hs 9, 27, 3. They appear in dazzling light Lk 2:9; Ac 7:30 (Ex 3:2); ISm 6:1; cp. the ‘shining face’ of Ac 6:15; or in white garments J 20:12; cp. Mt 28:3; Lk 24:4. Called πνεύματα Hb 1:7; 1 Cl 36:3 (both after Ps 103:4). πνεύματα λειτουργικά serving spirits Hb 1:14. Their voice is like thunder J 12:29; γλῶσσαι τῶν ἀ. language of angels 1 Cor 13:1 (after the analogy of the languages of the gods, Plato in Clem. Al., Strom. 1, 143; cp. 2 Cor 12:4; Rv 14:2f; TestJob 48–50; GSteindorff, Apk. d. Elias: TU 17, 3a, 1899, 153). They bring messages fr. God to men Lk 1:11f; Mt 28:2ff, and were also active in the giving of the law νόμος διαταγεὶς διʼ ἀγγέλων Gal 3:19; cp. Ac 7:38, 53; Hb 2:2 (Jos., Ant. 15, 136 τῶν ἐν τοῖς νόμοις διʼ ἀγγέλων παρὰ τ. θεοῦ μαθόντων; cp. Did., Gen. 110, 15 κἂν γὰρ διὰ ὑπουργῶν ἀγγέλων ποιῇ ἃ βούλεται θεός). As guardian angels of individuals (Tob 5:6, 22; cp. PGM 1, 172ff; Ael. Aristid. 50, 57 K.=26 p. 519 D.: ὁ σὸς Ἑρμῆς ἐστιν, to whom Aristid. has been entrusted since his birth) Mt 18:10 (PBarry, ET 23, 1912, 182); Ac 12:15 (JMoulton, JTS 3, 1902, 514–27, ET 14, 1903, 5ff); Lk 4:10 (Ps 90:11); Hv 5:1f. They conduct the blessed dead into heaven Lk 16:22 (Hermes does this acc. to Pythag. [Diog. L. 8, 31]); instruct humans to do good Hv 3, 5, 4; δικαιοσύνης m 6, 2, 1 (ParJer 8:12); rejoice at the repentance of a sinner Lk 15:10; cp. the ἄ. τῆς μετανοίας Hm 12, 4, 7; 12, 6, 1 al. They preside over various realms ἄ. ὁ ἔχων ἐξουσίαν ἐπὶ τοῦ πυρός Rv 14:18; ἄ. τῶν ὑδάτων 16:5; the four winds 7:1. God assigns them διακόσμησις γῆς Pa (4) (cp. ἄγγελοι ἐπὶ τῶν ἐξουσιῶν GrBar 12:3). An angel, Thegri, rules the animal world Hv 4, 2, 4 (Synes., Ep. 57 p. 192b δαίμονες as leaders of the grasshoppers). ἄ. τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ προφητικοῦ m 11:9; τὸν ἄ. τὸν τιμωρητήν Hs 7:6; cp. ὁ ἄ. ὁ μέγας Hs 8, 4, 1.—As creator of the world AcPlCor 1:15. On ἄ. τῶν ἐκκλησιῶν Rv 1:20, cp. 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14 (on the textual problems associated w. these vss. s. RCharles, ICC Comm. 1920, I, clvii; clxf; II 244; RBorger, TRu 52, ’87, 42f) and s. on ἀστήρ.—Subordinate to Christ Mt 4:11; 13:41; 16:27; Hb 1:4ff (Ps 96:7; B-D-F §254, 2); 1 Pt 3:22; Rv 5:11f; glorify him J 1:51 (JFritsch “… videbitis … angelos Dei ascendentes …,” VD 37, ’59, 1–11). δώδεκα λεγιῶνας ἀ. Mt 26:53; μυριάσιν ἀ. Hb 12:22; cp. Rv 5:11. Seven principal angels (Tob 12:15) Rv 8:2, 6; 15:1, 6; 16:1; 17:1; 21:9 (GDix, The Seven Archangels and the Seven Spirits: JTS 28, 1927, 233–50). Six angels, created first, to whom the management of all creation is entrusted Hv 3, 4, 1. Angels at the Parousia Mt 24:31; 2 Th 1:7. Μιχαὴλ καὶ οἱ ἄ. αὐτοῦ Rv 12:7. Revered by people (Celsus 1, 26 Ἰουδαίους σέβειν ἀγγέλους; 5, 6) θρησκείᾳ τῶν ἀ. worship of angels Col 2:18; λατρεύειν ἀγγέλοις as a sign of Jewish piety PtK 2 p. 14, 26=Clem. Al., Strom. 6, 41 p. 452, 9. Christ as σεμνότατος ἄ. Hv 5:2; m 5, 1, 7; cp. ὁ ἅγιος ἄ. Hs 5, 4, 4 v.l.; ὁ ἔνδοξος ἄ. Hs 5, 4, 4; 7:1ff; 8, 1, 2. ὁ ἄ. κυρίου Hs 7:5; 8, 1, 2ff; called Michael in Hs 8, 3, 3, where it is to be noted that Michael was the guardian angel of God’s people (WLueken, D. Erzengel Michael 1900; MDibelius, Hdb. exc. on Hs 5, 6, 8 p. 575f).

ⓑ intermediate beings gener., w. no ref. to their relation to God (opp. ἄνθρωποι; s. 2 above immediately before a) 1 Cor 4:9 (cp. TestJos 19:9 ἔχαιρον ἐπʼ αὐτῷ οἱ ἄγγελοι κ. οἱ ἄνθρωποι κ. πᾶσα ἡ γῆ).—Ro 8:38 ἄ. as serving spirit-powers seem to be differentiated fr. the ἀρχαί, who rule.

ⓒ evil spirits (Lactant., Inst. 2, 15, 8 daemonas Trismegistus ἀγγέλους πονηρούς appellat. Cp. also Job 1:6; 2:1; Philo, Gig. 16; TestAsh 6:4; PGM 4, 2701; αἱ πονηραὶ δυνάμεις, διάβολος καὶ οἱ ἄγγελοι αὐτοῦ Did., Gen. 45, 5; ADieterich, Nekyia 1893, 60f) τῷ διαβόλῳ καὶ τοῖς ἀγγέλοις αὐτοῦ Mt 25:41; cp. Rv 12:9. ὁ δράκων καὶ οἱ ἄ. αὐτοῦ vs. 7; ἄ. τῆς ἀβύσσου 9:11 (s. Ἀβαδδών); ἄ. πονηρός B 9:4; ἄ. τῆς πονηρίας in contrast to guardian angels Hm 6, 2, 1; ἄ. Σατανᾶ, which causes physical pain 2 Cor 12:7; esp. called ἄ. τρυφῆς καὶ ἀπάτης Hs 6, 2, 1f; leading men into evil B 18:1. Of the angels’ fall and their punishment (cp., in the opinion of many, Gen 6:2; En 6ff; 54; Book of Jubilees 5; SyrBar 56:13; LJung, Fallen Angels in Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan Lit. 1926; ALods, Congr. d’Hist. du Christ. I 29–54) ὁ θεὸς ἀγγέλων ἁμαρτησάντων οὐκ ἐφείσατο 2 Pt 2:4; ἀ. τοὺς μὴ τηρήσαντας τὴν ἑαυτῶν ἀρχήν who did not keep to their proper domain (s. ἀρχή 7) Jd 6. From the pass. already quoted above w. Gen. 6:2 (cp. also TestReub 5:3; Jos., Ant. 1, 73 ἄγγελοι θεοῦ γυναιξὶ συνιόντες; and polytheists’ concept of erotic desires of transcendent beings: HUsener, Weihnachtsfest² 1911, 74f; Rtzst., Poim. 228ff. Herr der Grösse 14f; and GJs 14:1) some conclude that the angels were subject to erotic desires; this is held to explain the regulation that women are to wear a veil in church services, since angels are present (cp. Origen, Orat. 31 and Ps 137:1 ἐναντίον ἀγγέλων ψαλῶ σοι) 1 Cor 11:10 (for another view and for the lit. s. ἐξουσία 7; s. also JFitzmyer, [Qumran angelology] NTS 4, ’57/58, 48–58; LJervis, JBL 112, ’93, 243–45: angels mediate God’s presence). In 6:3 οὐκ οἴδατε, ὅτι ἀγγέλους κρινοῦμεν; it is not certain whether only fallen angels are meant; θρησκείᾳ τῶν ἀ. worship of angels Col 2:18 polemicizes against what appears to be a type of gnostic reverence for angels. (On Qumran angelology s. Fitzmyer, cited above.)—OEverling, D. paulinische Angelologie u. Dämonologie 1888; Dibelius, Geisterwelt 1909; GKurze, D. Engels-u. Teufels-glaube d. Ap. Pls 1915; MJones, St Paul and the Angels: Exp. 8th ser., 16, 1921, 356–70; 412–25; EPeterson, D. Buch von den Engeln ’35; JMichl, D. Engelvorstellungen in Apk I ’37; ELangton, The Angel Teaching of the NT ’37; JBernardin, JBL 57, ’38, 273–79; ESchick, D. Botschaft der Engel im NT ’40; WMichaelis, Z. Engelchristol. im Urchristent. ’42; GHatzidakis, Ἄγγελος u. Verwandtes: SBWienAk 173, 1914.—B. 1486. DELG. DDD 81–96 (lit.). M-M. New Docs 5, 72f. TW. Sv.